Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2025), p

Information innovation (IT) is a set of associated fields that incorporate computer system systems, software application, shows languages, information and details processing, and storage. [1] IT forms part of details and interactions innovation (ICT). [2] An infotech system (IT system) is typically an information system, an interactions system, or, more particularly speaking, a computer system – consisting of all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment – run by a restricted group of IT users, and an IT task typically refers to the commissioning and execution of an IT system. [3] IT systems play an important function in facilitating efficient information management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across various industries. Successful IT tasks need precise planning and continuous upkeep to ensure optimum functionality and alignment with organizational objectives. [4]

Although humans have actually been storing, obtaining, manipulating, evaluating and interacting info since the earliest writing systems were established, [5] the term information innovation in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article released in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that “the brand-new innovation does not yet have a single recognized name. We shall call it infotech (IT).” [6] Their definition consists of 3 classifications: methods for processing, the application of analytical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order believing through computer system programs. [6]

The term is typically utilized as a synonym for computers and computer system networks, however it likewise encompasses other information distribution innovations such as tv and telephones. Several items or services within an economy are connected with infotech, consisting of hardware, software application, electronics, semiconductors, web, telecom devices, and e-commerce. [7] [a]

Based on the storage and processing innovations used, it is possible to identify four distinct phases of IT advancement: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present). [5]

Information innovation is a branch of computer science, specified as the research study of treatments, structures, and the processing of various types of data. As this field continues to evolve globally, its priority and importance have grown, leading to the introduction of computer system science-related courses in K-12 education.

Ideas of computer system science were very first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had actually discussed and began thinking about computer circuits and numerical estimations. As time went on, the field of infotech and computer technology became more complex and had the ability to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles started to be released from various companies. [9]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered a few of the significant pioneers of computer innovation in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their developments, many of their efforts were concentrated on designing the first digital computer system. In addition to that, topics such as expert system began to be brought up as Turing was starting to question such technology of the time duration. [10]

Devices have been utilized to aid calculation for countless years, probably at first in the type of a tally stick. [11] The Antikythera system, dating from about the start of the very first century BC, is typically considered the earliest recognized mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism. [12] Comparable tailored gadgets did not emerge in Europe till the 16th century, and it was not up until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of carrying out the 4 basic arithmetical operations was established. [13]

Electronic computers, utilizing either relays or valves, started to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world’s first programmable computer system, and by contemporary standards among the very first devices that could be considered a complete computing device. During the Second World War, Colossus established the very first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to carry out only a single job. It likewise did not have the ability to keep its program in memory; programming was performed utilizing plugs and switches to modify the internal wiring. [14] The very first recognizably contemporary electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its very first program on 21 June 1948. [15]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a brand-new generation of computer systems to be created with considerably lowered power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, included 4050 valves and had a power intake of 25 kilowatts. By contrast, the first transistorized computer established at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. [16]

Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor innovation consist of the integrated circuit (IC) created by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface area passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, [17] the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957, [18] the MOSFET presentation by a Bell Labs group. [19] [20] [21] [22] the planar procedure by Jean Hoerni in 1959, [23] [24] [25] and the microprocessor created by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These essential creations caused the development of the computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the development of information and communications innovation (ICT). [26]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term infotech had been redefined as “The advancement of cable tv was enabled by the merging of telecommunications and calculating innovation (… typically known in Britain as infotech).” We then begin to see the look of the term in 1990 consisted of within documents for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). [27]

Innovations in innovation have actually currently changed the world by the twenty-first century as people had the ability to gain access to different online services. This has actually changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of U.S. workers were currently in professions in this profession. 136.9 million individuals were personally connected to the Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million households. [28] Along with the Internet, new types of innovation were likewise being introduced throughout the world, which has actually enhanced effectiveness and made things easier around the world.

Along with innovation revolutionizing society, millions of procedures might be done in seconds. Innovations in interaction were likewise vital as people started to count on the computer to communicate through telephone lines and cable. The introduction of the email was thought about innovative as “companies in one part of the world might communicate by email with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world …” [29]

Not just personally, computer systems and innovation have actually likewise transformed the marketing market, resulting in more purchasers of their products. In 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in goods simply over the Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later on led to $289 billion in sales. [29] And as computer systems are rapidly becoming more advanced every day, they are becoming more utilized as individuals are ending up being more reliant on them throughout the twenty-first century.

Data processing

Storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus used punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now outdated. [30] Electronic information storage, which is used in modern-day computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to get rid of the mess from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury hold-up line. [31] The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, which was based on a basic cathode ray tube. [32] However, the info stored in it and delay-line memory was unpredictable in the reality that it needed to be continually refreshed, and therefore was lost when power was eliminated. The earliest form of non-volatile computer system storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932 [33] and utilized in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s first commercially readily available general-purpose electronic computer system. [34]

IBM presented the very first disk drive in 1956, as a part of their 305 RAMAC computer system. [35]:6 Most digital data today is still kept magnetically on hard drives, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. [36]:4 -5 Until 2002 most details was kept on analog devices, however that year digital storage capability surpassed analog for the first time. Since 2007 [upgrade], practically 94% of the information kept around the world was held digitally: [37] 52% on hard drives, 28% on optical gadgets, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been approximated that the around the world capacity to keep information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, [38] doubling approximately every 3 years. [39]

Databases

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to attend to the problem of keeping and recovering large quantities of information properly and quickly. An early such system was IBM’s Information Management System (IMS), [40] which is still widely released more than 50 years later. [41] IMS stores data hierarchically, [40] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage design based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the very first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was launched by Oracle. [42]

All DMS include components, they permit the data they save to be accessed simultaneously by lots of users while preserving its stability. [43] All databases prevail in one point that the structure of the data they contain is specified and stored separately from the information itself, in a database schema. [40]

Over the last few years, the extensible markup language (XML) has ended up being a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be stored in systems, it is typically kept in relational databases to take advantage of their “robust execution confirmed by years of both theoretical and useful effort.” [44] As a development of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML’s text-based structure uses the benefit of being both machine- and human-readable. [45]

Transmission

Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception. [46] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecoms, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels. [38]

XML has actually been increasingly used as a method of information interchange considering that the early 2000s, [47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those associated with web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, [45] explaining “data-in-transit rather than … data-at-rest”. [47]

Manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential speed of technological change (a sort of Moore’s law): devices’ application-specific capacity to compute details per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capability of the world’s general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months throughout the same twenty years; the international telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world’s storage capacity per capita required approximately 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast details has actually doubled every 12.3 years. [38]

Massive amounts of information are kept around the world every day, however unless it can be evaluated and provided effectively it basically lives in what have actually been called data burial places: “data archives that are seldom checked out”. [48] To deal with that issue, the field of data mining – “the process of finding interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of information” [49] – emerged in the late 1980s. [50]

Email

The technology and services it supplies for sending out and receiving electronic messages (called “letters” or “electronic letters”) over a distributed (consisting of global) computer system network. In regards to the structure of components and the principle of operation, e-mail practically duplicates the system of routine (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, accessory, box, shipment, and others) and characteristic features – ease of usage, message transmission delays, enough reliability and at the very same time no warranty of delivery. The advantages of email are: easily viewed and remembered by a person addresses of the kind user_name@domain_name (for instance, somebody@example.com); the capability to move both plain text and formatted, along with arbitrary files; self-reliance of servers (in the general case, they address each other straight); adequately high reliability of message shipment; ease of usage by human beings and programs.

Disadvantages of e-mail: the existence of such a phenomenon as spam (huge advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed shipment of a specific letter; possible hold-ups in message delivery (approximately numerous days); limitations on the size of one message and on the total size of messages in the mailbox (personal for users).

Search system

A software and hardware complex with a web user interface that provides the ability to look for details on the Internet. An online search engine typically suggests a site that hosts the user interface (front-end) of the system. The software application part of an online search engine is an online search engine (search engine) – a set of programs that offers the performance of an online search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine designer company. Most search engines look for details on Web websites, however there are also systems that can search for files on FTP servers, items in online shops, and info on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is among the top priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web short article about the main issues in the work of online search engine).

Commercial results

Companies in the infotech field are frequently talked about as a group as the “tech sector” or the “tech market.” [51] [52] [53] These titles can be misinforming at times and need to not be mistaken for “tech business;” which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell customer technology and software. It is also worth noting that from a business point of view, Infotech departments are a “cost center” the majority of the time. An expense center is a department or personnel which incurs expenses, or “expenses”, within a business rather than producing revenues or profits streams. Modern businesses rely greatly on innovation for their daily operations, so the costs entrusted to cover innovation that helps with company in a more effective way are generally viewed as “just the expense of operating.” IT departments are designated funds by senior management and need to attempt to accomplish the desired deliverables while staying within that spending plan. Government and the private sector might have various financing systems, however the concepts are more-or-less the exact same. This is an often ignored reason for the fast interest in automation and artificial intelligence, but the continuous pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of a minimum of some small operations in big business.

Many business now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their services. Companies have actually likewise looked for to incorporate IT with organization results and decision-making through a BizOps or business operations department. [54]

In a service context, the Infotech Association of America has actually specified details technology as “the research study, design, development, application, implementation, assistance, or management of computer-based details systems”. [55] [page required] The obligations of those operating in the field consist of network administration, software application advancement and installation, and the planning and management of a company’s innovation life process, by which software and hardware are kept, updated, and replaced.

Information services

Information services is a term rather loosely applied to a range of IT-related services provided by business companies, [56] [57] [58] as well as information brokers.

-.
U.S. Employment circulation of computer system systems style and associated services, 2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Employment in the computer system systems and style associated services market, in thousands, 1990-2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Occupational growth and incomes in computer system systems design and associated services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. projected percent modification in work in selected professions in computer system systems design and related services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. predicted typical annual percent change in output and employment in selected industries, 2010-2020 [59]

Ethics

The field of information ethics was developed by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. [60]:9 Some of the ethical issues connected with the use of info technology consist of: [61]:20 -21

– Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the approval of the copyright holders.
– Employers monitoring their employees’ e-mails and other Internet usage.
Unsolicited emails.
Hackers accessing online databases.
– Website installing cookies or spyware to keep track of a user’s online activities, which may be utilized by data brokers.

IT projects

Research suggests that IT tasks in company and public administration can easily become substantial in scale. Work conducted by McKinsey in cooperation with the University of Oxford recommended that half of all large-scale IT jobs (those with initial expense estimates of $15 million or more) often failed to maintain expenses within their preliminary budgets or to finish on time. [62]

Information and communications innovation (ICT).
IT infrastructure.
Outline of details innovation.
Knowledge society.

Notes

^ On the later on more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: “In its original application ‘information technology’ was proper to explain the convergence of innovations with application in the vast field of information storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has because been converted to what purports to be of excellent use, however without the support of definition … the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position.” [8] References

Citations

^ Cosker, Glynn (2023 ), “What Is Infotech? A Novice’s Guide to the World of IT”, Technology Blog, Rasmussen University.
^ “Computer Technology Definition”. Law Insider. Retrieved 11 July 2022. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). “The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems”. International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science (IJSECS). 3 (2 ): 151-161. doi:10.35870/ ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Information Technology and Systems, University of Arizona, archived from the original on 5 August 2012, retrieved 2 August 2012
^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958 ), “Management in the 1980s”, Harvard Business Review, 11.
^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), “Infotech”, A Dictionary of Media and Communication (initially ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, retrieved 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computer systems and computer system networks but more broadly designating any innovation that is utilized to create, shop, process, and/or disperse information electronically, consisting of tv and telephone.
^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000 ), p. 869.
^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
^ Henderson, H. (2017 ). computer science. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer system science and innovation. (3rd ed.). [Online] New York City: Facts On File.
^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981 ), “Decipherment of the earliest tablets”, Science, 211 (4479 ): 283-285, Bibcode:1981 Sci … 211..283 S, doi:10.1126/ science.211.4479.283, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 17748027.
^ Wright (2012 ), p. 279.
^ Chaudhuri (2004 ), p. 3.
^ Lavington (1980 ), p. 11.
^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), “Computing’s Golden Jubilee”, Resurrection (20 ), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 9 January 2012, obtained 19 April 2008.
^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), “Some early transistor applications in the UK”, Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3 ): 100-106, doi:10.1049/ esej:19980301 (inactive 7 December 2024), ISSN 0963-7346 citation: CS1 maint: DOI non-active since December 2024 (link).
^ US2802760A, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., “Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion”, provided 1957-08-13
^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957 ). “Surface Protection and Selective Masking throughout Diffusion in Silicon”. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9 ): 547. doi:10.1149/ 1.2428650.
^ KAHNG, D. (1961 ). “Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device”. Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583-596. doi:10.1142/ 9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960 ). “The systems for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen”. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131-136. Bibcode:1960 JPCS … 14..131 L. doi:10.1016/ 0022-3697( 60 )90219-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 120 & 321-323. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007 ). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
^ US 3025589 Hoerni, J. A.: “Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices” filed May 1, 1959
^ “Advanced info on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000” (PDF). Nobel Prize. June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ Information innovation. (2003 ). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of computer science. (4th ed.).
^ Stewart, C.M. (2018 ). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of American studies. [Online] Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ a b Northrup, C.C. (2013 ). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.), Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to the present. [Online] London: Routledge.
^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010 ), p. 178.
^ Lavington (1998 ), p. 1.
^ “Early computers at Manchester University”, Resurrection, 1 (4 ), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 28 August 2017, recovered 19 April 2008.
^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), “Magnetic drum”, Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, archived from the initial on 21 June 2006, obtained 21 August 2011.
^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the initial on 21 November 2008, recovered 24 January 2009.
^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001 ), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2.
^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999 ), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3.
^ Wu, Suzanne, “Just How Much Information Is There on the planet?”, USC News, University of Southern California, recovered 10 September 2013.
^ a b c Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (1 April 2011), “The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information”, Science, 332 (6025 ): 60-65, Bibcode:2011 Sci … 332 … 60H, doi:10.1126/ science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385.
^ “Americas occasions – Video animation on The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010”. The Economist. Archived from the initial on 18 January 2012.
^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 2.
^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, archived from the initial (PDF) on 25 December 2013, recovered 7 August 2012.
^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 3.
^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010 ). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7.
^ Pardede (2009 ), p. 2.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. 4.
^ Weik (2000 ), p. 361.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. xiii.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 5.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 8.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. xxiii.
^ “Technology Sector Snapshot”. The New York City Times. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Our programmes, campaigns and partnerships”. TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Cyberstates 2016”. CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT”. TechNewsWorld. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
^ Proctor, K. Scott (2011 ), Optimizing and Assessing Information Technology: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3.
^ “Top Information Services business”. VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ “Follow Information Services on Index.co”. Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Publishing, Value Line. “Industry Overview: Information Services”. Value Line. Archived from the initial on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). “U.S. Careers in the growing field of info innovation services”. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008 ), “Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics”, in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5.
^ Reynolds, George (2009 ), Ethics in Information Technology, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9.
^ Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J., Delivering massive IT tasks on time, on spending plan, and on value, released 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023
Bibliography

Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010 ), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1
Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004 ), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8
Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011 ), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1
Lavington, Simon (1980 ), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8
Lavington, Simon (1998 ), A History of Manchester Computers (2nd ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5
Pardede, Eric (2009 ), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1
Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000 ), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011 ), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6
Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006 ), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8
Weik, Martin (2000 ), Computer Technology and Communications Dictionary, vol. 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0
Wright, Michael T. (2012 ), “The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism”, in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279-292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further reading

Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994 ), Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
– Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011 ). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information Technology: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280.
Gleick, James (2011 ). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York City: Pantheon Books.
Price, Wilson T. (1981 ), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2.
– Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999 ). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
– Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986 ). Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.